Monday, September 1, 2008

The Graveyard Sensibility of Emily Dickinson

The Chittagong University Journal of Arts Vol. XIV, June 1998


Masud Mahmood

[Abstract: Emily Dickinson is America's graveyard poet. Graves, tombs, sepulchres and burial grounds frequently occur in her writings, whether they are her personal letters or coruscating lyrics. Once she wrote: "There is no Trumpet like the Tomb"(L1043). Her creativity acquires a strange perspective from their curious spectacle that, instead of repelling us, draws us ever so closer with a compelling power. The graveyard seems to her to hold the secret answers to most of her gritty metaphysical questions about death and the afterlife. So graves and graveyards are the focal points of Emily Dickinson's eschatological imagination. The burial place, unlike that in conventional graveyard poetry, is the launching ground of her quester's questions and the grave, rather than being merely a dark abyss of dead bones and death's-heads, is a radiant gateway to the other world. Instead of passive submission to the human condition of mortality, she engages in active interrogation about this black hole in the scheme of the mysterious beyond. This is Emily Dickinson's graveyard sensibility. She expands the traditional paradigm to incorporate a jocund mood into it.]

For fifteen years (1840-1855) during the most impressionable time of her life,1 Emily Dickinson lived within daily sight of a graveyard. This was the village cemetery near the Dickinson home on Pleasant Street in Amherst, Massachusetts, where the rural dead were brought past the house in mournful processions for burial. This close view of the graveyard provided her with ample opportunity to cultivate what she calls the "science of the grave" (P#539)2 and study at first hand the ceremonies and trappings connected with the last rite. The recurrent spectacle of those funeral processions and burials deepened her consciousness of the end and its sequels in metaphysical terms, and affected all her speculation on death and the hereafter. Hence perhaps her obsession with tombs, graves, and graveyards in her writings.

The compulsive nature of Emily Dickinson's mortuary subjects and themes is metaphorically rendered in a poem of her early thirties ("Bereaved of all, f went abroad -" P#784), where the grave stands for death and all its grim associations, and overcasts her consciousness:

Bereaved of all, I went abroad - No less bereaved was I Upon a New Peninsula

- The Grave preceded me -

Obtained my Lodgings, ere myself -

And when I sought my Bed

The Grave it was reposed upon The Pillow for my Head -

I waked to find it first awake -

I rose - It followed me -

I tried to drop in the Crowd -

To lose it in the Sea -

In Cups of artificial Drowse

To steep its shape away -

The Grave - was finished - but the Spade

Remained in Memory -

(P#784)

This lyric suggests that the grave's ubiquity is a persistent theme in Dickinson and that the thought of death proves equally tenacious for her imagination. Death and the grave occur in tandem. She cannot particularly shake off the thought of the grave - try as she may by whatever means she can think of, sleeping it off, running away from it, giving it the slip in the crowd or wilfully losing it "in the Sea." This is so not only because it is always and everywhere present but, more importantly, also because it is immanent in her world and being. Thus interpreted, the grave figures as extraordinarily pre-emptive, despotic and wilful. Apparently the speaker cannot but allow it more space and time in her life. The poet acclimatises herself to it and her deep intimacy with the theme is rendered in the domestic scene of reposing her head on a pillow. This suggests not only her constant musings about death in her solitary hours but also indicates that the thought is deeply embedded in both her conscious and unconscious life. Figuratively speaking, there is no end to her grave-digging. An individual grave may be completed, but the spade is never done with: "The Grave - finished - but the Spade /Remained in Memory -". The grave is the brink of the invisible world and the battle-front where she wrestles with something unaccountable, "pedigreeless"(P#153) and unadjustable in the human world (P#749). This inscrutable phenomenon has given rise to certain popular notions and prejudices about death and graveyards. To the living, the graveyard is always a dubious place: in P#892 it looks like "a curious town." Emily Dickinson believes that an intimate knowledge of the burial ground can dispel and reverse such unfounded ideas and fears.

In P#51 the speaker is a dead person who died "Earlier, by the Dial, / Than the rest have gone." When she was alive, the graveyard she passed by on her way to and from school looked like a strange village. Then it seemed to be a curiously quiet and dreadful place. Sometimes she would see some people come there and leave the place after doing some queer business: she could not guess what. It was a distant view, and she was ignorant of the place. She became knowledgeable about the place after her own death. The fear of the place disappears when she herself becomes an inhabitant of the place. But as a dead person, now she finds it really snug and protective, quiet and peaceful: it poses no threat to the delicate and vulnerable person:

It's stiller than the sundown.

It's cooler than the dawn -

The Daisies dare to come here - And birds can flutter down -

The distance between the place and the viewer defers knowledge and the lack of knowledge gives rise to all sorts of unfounded guesses and fears about this really friendly place. The first-person narrative lends an authoritative tone to the speaking voice. As the object of her attention draws nearer and nearer, the speaker gets on intimate terms with it and at one stage domesticates it. When she becomes part of it by death, her role changes from outsider to insider: now she plays kind host to the dead. Personal relationship with it removes fear and the place looks more hospitable and sympathetic to the "... tired - / Or perplexed - or cold -" in life. She finds that "Underneath the mould" is the promise of healing and relief. The "cool" of the graveyard contrasts with the "cold" of life and strongly suggests the assuaging quality of the place. The speaker promises warm hospitalities in the grave: "Trust the loving promise/ Cry "it's l," "take Dollie," / And I will enfold!" Again "The thoughtful grave encloses - / Tenderly tucking them [the fragile and distressed] in from frost" (P#141). The neglected in life become the most prized and guarded "treasures" that the "cautious grave" never exposes. One of the reasons that Dickinson refers to the dead as treasures is that her general idea of death developed out of her acute sense of loss of the most valuable persons in her life whom she would like to refer to as an "estate," "possessions" and "treasures." Her imagination would therefore often conceive of the cold Puritan grave or coffin as a nice little private place or a priceless casket into which her loved ones were stolen by the Calvinistic God alias the "burglar" and "banker." At the same time she had hoped that God would "refund" them after her own death (Mclntosh, 1998:2857). But, then, she considered herself no less a hoarder of treasures (L193).'

P#1443 describes the typical atmosphere of a graveyard. As is often the case with Dickinson, the fine irony of "A chilly Peace" undercuts what seems to be a sincere adoration of the graveyard atmosphere in the poem. (The word "chilly" suggests an uncomfortable and uneasy peace). Rather than compose her, the graveyard's cold peacefulness upsets the speaker. Dickinson theorises about the grave on the basis of traditional religious assumptions, and then she subverts her own theory with the ironic implication that the lifelessness of the place is imprudently understood and appreciated as peacefulness. However, as a resting-place the atmosphere of the graveyard is perfect: sombre, placid and hallowed. The description is a copybook reproduction of the cemetery in conventional graveyard poetry, from which Dickinson makes no departure in her view of the graveyard as a consecrated ground of profound peace and eternal rest. Consistent with the traditional idea, death is depicted as sleep in the poem in which the dead are absorbed and assimilated in the graveyard. As sleep is suggested to be the condition of the soul in the grave and an essential precondition for its resurrection, she asks everybody to be quiet near the graveyard lest any noise should disturb the germinating process of the sleeping corpse-seeds: "Let no Sunrise' yellow noise/ Interrupt this Ground -"(P#829). The sun lying respectfully on the grass adds to the solemn dignity of the graveyard. Being at rest, the sun might signify a perfect ending so that "Not any Trance of industry/ These shadows scruitinize-" (P#1443). The restless activity of life and the restful passivity of death are juxtaposed and represented by the light and shade of the place: if the sun means activity, the shadows might suggest rest. The graveyard is not only a chamber of horror; it can be hospitable, affectionate and protective, too. So the entrant is exhorted to enter it joyfully. The eschatological individual4 craves for this state of the spirit and it is the exciting climax of all spiritual careers. It is the enactment of the End at the personal level. It does not however diminish the meaning of the eschaton in the least since it is thus that the individual enhances and accomplishes the cosmic event at the very personal level. The love and freedom of this state is almost utopian:

Where every bird is bold to go

And bees abashless play,

The foreigner before he knocks

Must thrust the tears away.

(P#1758)

The image of the cemetery as a happy home cemented with close family ties was developed by the founders of rural cemeteries in the mid-nineteenth century. For instance, revealing the significance of a rural cemetery in his consecration address on June 20,1841, the Reverend Amos Blanchard disclosed his "secret wish that when death shall have torn his beloved ones from his embrace, and when himself shall have died, they might repose together, where they should never be disturbed by the encroachments of a crowded and swelling of the living. .." (qt.. by Bender, 1974:202). Dickinson shows this tendency of regarding the grave or the graveyard as the place of restored relationships sundered by death when she views a visit to the grave as a home-coming, and her principal expectation from the afterlife is one of a long-awaited family reunion. In an early letter to her girlhood friend Abiah Root written perhaps on the occasion of the recent death of her friend Leonard Humphrey, Emily Dickinson compares the graveyard to a home. The letter is meant both for self-consolation and for sharing, in a way, her thoughts on death with the recipient of the letter. Here the graveyard figures as a place of reunion with the darling dead. Dickinson communicates her early thoughts about the graveyard while reporting a graveyard walk and her musings there:

You have stood by the grave before; I have walked there sweet summer evenings and read the names on the stones, and wondered who would come and give me the same memorial ;5 but I never have laid my friends there, and forgot that they too must die; this is my first affliction, and indeed 'tis hard to bear it. To those bereaved so often that home is no more here, and whose communion with friends is had only in prayers, there must be much to hope for, but when the unreconciled spirit has nothing left but God, that spirit is lone indeed. I don't think there will be any sunshine, or any singing birds in the spring that's coming. I shall look for an early grave then, when the grass is growing green; I shall love to call the bird there if it has gentle music, and the meekest-eyed wild flowers, and the low, plaintive insect. How precious the grave, Abiah, when aught that we love is laid there, and affection fain go too, if that the lost were lonely! I will try not to say any more - my rebellious thoughts are many, and the friend I love and trust in has much now much to forgive. I wish I were somebody else - I would pray the prayer of the "Pharisee," but I am a poor little "Publican." "Son of David," look down on me! (L39).

The letter is typically Dickinsonian: in turn reflective, sentimental, sad, despairing, hopeful, affectionate, humble, quietly firm and finally unyielding. .

For Dickinson, a visit to the graveyard is a homecoming, because her dear dead are embedded in its sacred ground 6 In general, she refers to the grave as a home in both her poetry and letters and even admits that her thoughts are spontaneously directed towards it. She wrote to Mrs. J. G. Holland a few years before her death: "It is almost involuntary with me to send my Note to that Home in the Grass where your many lie - Could I visit the Beds of my own who sleep, as reprovelessly, even Night were sweet" (L775). This implies a belief that all her beloved dead are sleeping in their graves and that she could expect to reunite with them in heaven. In that case death would not mean separation or solitude but reunion and jubilation (LL 729-732). Sharon Cameron rightly says: "... while the most profound estrangement is that precipitated by death, in Dickinson's poems death is not loss for the dying person but is rather reunion" (1979:136). This belief exhilarated Dickinson to write to Charles H. Clark about two years before her death: "To be certain we were to meet our Lost, would be a Vista of reunion, who of us could bear?" (L896).

The graveyard is not however the final resting ground for Dickinson. It is only a halting place between two voyages across the seas of life and death. In Dickinson's poetry the sea serves both as a metaphor for the flow of restless life with innumerable currents and drifts of worldly activity that finally sinks into the graveyard, and as a metaphor for an inconceivably vast chaos that she imagines follows upon death. When life is envisaged as a turbid flow of milling mankind, the graveyard is imaged as a terminus finally and impartially receiving cargoes of the dead from earthly life: “... all mankind deliver here/ From whatsoever sea-"(P#1443). Like "Democratic Death" (L195), the hospitality of the graveyard is non-discriminatory on the count of temporal status ("whatsoever sea"), and dispensed to all and sundry, especially to those persecuted, neglected and deprived in life. The graveyard is Dickinson's version of Edmund Spenser's House of Holiness, because here the dead are resuscitated before embarking upon their final and uncertain journey for the afterlife across a benighted sea of unfathomable chaos, which Dickinson calls "the recallless sea" (P#1633). This sea is similar to Coleridge's "sunless sea" of oblivion in "Kubla Khan."

The tempestuous sea was close to the experience of early New England Puritans, and had been all the more so to the first settlers; and it was one of Dickinson's Puritan inheritances in her imagery. The historical pattern of the growth of the American settlements in New England also helped her understand the curious phenomenon of the growth of any graveyard in a place. Every graveyard is a piece of land chosen, reclaimed from the wilderness, and settled by some first homesteader (a dead person in this case). Subsequently, others follow, and the consecrated ground

thrives as a habitation of the dead:

Before Myself was born

'Twas settled, so they say,

A Territory for the Ghosts -

And Squirrels, formerly.

Until a Pioneer, as

Settlers often do

Liking the quiet of the Place

Attracted more unto -

And from a Settlement

A Capital has grown

Distinguished for the gravity

Of every Citizen.

(P#892)

The poem particularly illustrates Dickinson's "graveyard sensibility" that offers every explanation from the perspective of a graveyard. Like a settlement grown in the wilderness, a graveyard is inaugurated by some "Pioneer," too, and gradually it develops into " a Capital", a necropolis -the heart of the community and the most important centre of life. (In L82 Dickinson refers to the graveyard as "the celestial city"). Thus Dickinson alludes to events in American history in order to illustrate the transformation of a graveyard into a place of importance. When the graveyard is imagined as a capital (P#892) the dead person becomes a metropolitan and urban sophisticate. The status of the graveyard is upgraded thereby as a place for sophisticated residents. In Lydia H. Sigourney's writing, the graveyard becomes "the most sacred city of the dead" (St. Armand, 1984:48). Dickinson thus understands her New England cultural history through the growth of this "Capital" of the dead.

The grave is the focal point of Dickinson's consciousness, and always fires up her imagination. It is the gateway to the mysterious beyond that intrigues her infinitely and, as she said to her friend Jane Humphrey, a prelude to the "house not made with hands" (L180). The grave, being the earthly limit of mortal life - the earthly eschaton-provides the experiencer with an opportunity for the apocalypse of material being. In fact, the comprehensive apocalypse of the bodily perception happens at the moment of death and it occurs with the cataclysmic intensity of the biblical apocalypse. Howsoever the grave may be interpreted in the light of Christian optimism, she primarily imagines its horrors: its restricted size, the living death-­sleep, the physical decay and dissolution,' the entombed consciousness, and the impossibility of escaping from this fast enclosure. That is to say, the "bareheaded life - under the grass" did disturb her immensely "like a wasp" (L220).

In P#943 she is scared of the "restricted Breadth" of the grave at first; but when she remembers that this crammed space would widen out into an expansive "Circumference without Relief - / Or Estimate - or End -" after death, she feels relieved. In these terms the suffocating grave becomes a spatially enormous, more airy and sunnier place, instead of being a narrow dark pit of unfathomable depths. Such reflection and sentiment lend the grave an imaginative expansion: "A Grave - is a restricted Breadth - / Yet ampler than the Sun - ". Apart from signifying the area of the grave, the word "Breadth" suggests "breath," too, and implicitly reminds us of the brevity, decomposition and decay of the flesh in particular, and of mortality in general. On the other hand, the Christian understanding of the grave as vast and adequate (thought of in relation to the enormous magnitude of the hereafter) posits it as superseding in degree the most powerful object in the natural world - the sun. In fact, the poem argues how the "restricted Breadth" is "ampler than the Sun."

When considered from the Christian point of view therefore, the grave is neither the end nor a closed space for Dickinson. Death transforms the grave from its narrow miserable prison-like state to an adequately roomy accommodation. This view softens up the hard traditional icon of death as endless misery. Thus she may critique, as she does now and then, the "Eclipse" (i.e. the faith in religion and God) that her family members address every morning (L261); but the thought of inescapable death and of the suffocating space in the grave remains tolerable to her because of the biblical promise of a spacious hereafter.

However Camille Paglia finds no such relief in Dickinson's portrayal of the grave and looks upon it as a veritable chamber of horror:

... Dickinson gets her best black comedy from the graveyard: "No Passenger was known to flee/ That lodged a night in memory - / That wily subterranean Inn/ Contrives that none go out again." (1406) This is like the commercial for Black Flag Roach Motel, a little box tiled with insecticide glue: "Bugs check in, but they don't check out!" The Procrustean host of the subterranean inn is probably a Christ of mixed motives, avenging the No Vacancy of his infancy by keeping a perpetual open house with one--way doors (1991:633).

Paglia treats Emily Dickinson as a sadomasochist for whom the grave serves as the most ideal torture chamber. For Paglia, Dickinson revives the medieval images of maggoty festering corpses in sepulchres where the grave figured as a chamber of horror with its prospects of corporeal putrefaction and decomposition since the medieval ars moriendi looked upon the grave as the appropriate consequence of earthly power and glory. The catholic didacticism of the medieval church weighed heavily upon it, making the fate of the flesh look as frightening as possible in its terminal state. In medieval European ars moriendi the grave took precedence over the after-life. The fate of the flesh in the grave was so magnified that it obstructed the vision of the spirit's career.

Significantly early New England Puritanism had a striking similarity with medieval Christianity in the depiction of death in its gravestone art.' Reminiscent of early New England mortuary art, death, for Dickinson too, does not always mean transfiguration of the corpse into an angelic form; sometimes she notices the dehumanising act of death resulting in the transformation of the dead into an inanimate and even degendred object.' Sometimes, again, it is mysterious, strange, and even bizarre. In P#272, the corpse in the grave behaves like a zombie; its death-­sleep has no human quality except for the "Pantomime" of pneumatic motions (Ottlinger, 1996:154). The poem provides a peepshow of the world of the dead, as it were, who are not truly alive, but resemble living human beings. In P#115 the grave looks like a suspicious inn without provisions - its boarders are peculiar, its rooms curious, and the owner is a "Necromancer," a trafficker with the dead: The

grave is depicted as an inn of strange arrivals and unaccountable departures:

What inn is this

Where for the night

Peculiar traveler comes ?

Who is the landlord?

Where the maids?

Behold, what curious rooms!

No ruddy fires on the hearth, No brimming tankards flow. Necromancer, landlord, Who are these below?

(P# 115)

The speaker is bewildered in the alien setting of the grave, and her bewilderment is reflected in a series of interrogatives in the poem. So the early Puritan image of the grave as a frightful pit somewhat overshadows Dickinson's idea of it. But this image is no longer accompanied by the idea of death as the "King of Terrors" and the wages of sin that bedevilled the early New England Puritans.

However, this psychology of horror does not always attend Dickinson's view of the grave, and probably the general outlook of her time on death had a great deal to do with this other picture of the grave in her writings. The attitude to death grew more and more sentimental in her time and, under the influence of this changing mood, the grave became increasingly domesticated and fitted out with homely hospitalities. As a result, often the atmosphere of the grave would be depicted as being clean, lighted, familiar and cheerful, such as the interior of a well­ordered, well-kept home. One can clearly notice this influence in P#1 743 where the speaker keeps the house ready to entertain guests with "marble tea." She appears to be perfectly at home in her impeccable sepulchral household ("little cottage") eagerly waiting for guests:

The grave my little cottage is, Where "Keeping house" for thee I make my parlor orderly

And lay the marble tea.

It is this quality of neat order and warm hospitality that makes "that ferocious Room / A Home" (P#1489). Such offer of love and affection not only considerably reduces the fear of death but can also encourage one's desire for it, as it reportedly did in nineteenth-century New England.10 The room is little but not small" : although physically small, its inner space in metaphysical terms acquires an endless expanse for holding "A Citizen of Paradise" (P#943).

Dickinson uses house symbols for graves and graveyards. This is to allay the fear of death and to build up a more welcoming image of the after-life. The soul is supposed to be the resident of the grave until Resurrection; it does not go direct to heaven after death. It is thus as the waiting room of the dead that the grave receives consecration and acquires respectability in Dickinson's writing. The grave becomes a place of love and affection, for it houses "the meek members of the Resurrection." It looks like a version of the medieval purgatory. But the subjunctive "till Judgment break" virtually leaves the speaker in doubt. When the grave is being made she reminds the gravedigger to accomplish his task with great care and solemnity:

Ample make this Bed

Make this Bed with Awe

In it wait till Judgment break

Excellent and Fair.

(P#829)

This removes the fear of death as the "King of Terrors"12 and encourages a desire for death instead. Several of her poems catch the mood of the topical Rural Cemetery movements.13 The following poem evinces this mood in the newly refurbished "Prison" (i.e. the grave):

How soft this Prison is

How sweet these sullen bars

No Despot but the King of Down Invented this repose.

(P#1334)

Though this cheerful image of the grave makes Dickinson momentarily infer death as "the King of Down" rather than a "Despot" or "the King of Terrors," yet she cannot forget that the grave is essentially a prison, and this one only a little superior with its new refurbishment. This might mean that the intermediate state between mortal life and immortality is not a happy one, and there is no need to be deluded by the sentimental depiction of the condition in the grave. The Cemetery Movements therefore could not remove the essential horror of the grave from Dickinson's mind.

However, this fearful image of the last home as a chamber of horror does not preclude the possibility of resurrection, as the grave is often a holy stepping stone or prelude to the afterlife for Dickinson. Her idea of death tends to show a streak of mortalism (the belief that the body and soul are now lying dead in the grave and will be resurrected together on Judgement Day) when the graveyard is venerated as a holy ground and graves as bedchambers as in P#829. According to the Bible, the soul is supposed to be the resident of the grave until Resurrection and the Last Judgement which are expected by her religion to be "Excellent and Fair." The soul is not supposed to go direct to heaven after death. This implies that the grave is seen merely as a transit room for the dead on its onward journey to the next world. In the second stanza of P#829 Dickinson might be developing the organicist process of burial and resurrection metaphorised in the Bible respectively as sowing a seed and germinating it. She sets forth her categorical instructions to the undertaker:

Be its Mattress straight - Be its Pillow round -

Let no Sunrise' yellow noise Interrupt this Ground -

The corpse is looked upon in the Bible as a seed in the process of germination." Perfect peace in the seedbed is an essential precondition for an uninterrupted germination of the corpse-seed, that is, for the resurrection to happen "Excellent and Fair." Hence her reminder: "Let no Sunrise' yellow noise/ Interrupt this Ground -" (P#829). But the irony is that, contrary to the law of the natural world, the sun is a deterrent rather than an accelerant to the germination of the corpse-seed. Eternal life is opposed to the present sunlit temporal one. Dickinson makes this insinuation as often as she touches on the subject of the afterlife.

Dickinson's graveyard poems in which cemeteries look like peaceful promenades and graves are tenderly treated as homes and shelters for the dead are products of mid-nineteenth-century America when landscaped rural cemeteries, private ownership of graves, and a romantic attitude to death became enormously popular. For instance, Dickinson looks upon the grave as a personal acquisition, a private place, and the possession of a particular individual in the following lines: I am alive - becauseI do not own a House Entitled to myself - precise - And fitting no one else -And marked my Girlhood's name -So Visitors may knowWhich Door is mine - and not mistake - And try another Key - (P# 470) One's grave is one's own possession by the irrevocable right of one's sanctified internment in the grave. In this sense every owner of the grave is a proprietor. When one is alive one cannot be the owner of this "House." But, upon death, the title ("Entitled" is used in the legal sense to indicate the right of possession) of the property is handed to the incumbent. The New England Puritan tradition focused on graveyards as reminders to the forgetful materialist of the ultimate fate. As much as their seventeenth- and eighteenth-century predecessors had done before, the mid-nineteenth-century devouts hoped that "the aspirations of vanity, and the pride of distinction in place, wealth, and power [would] here receive an effectual rebuke" (qtd. by Bender, 1974:202). The seventeenth-century New England divine Cotton Mather recognised this admonitory and didactic value of the graveyard. Once he advised the young children who had failed to make the grade at the Grammar school in the following words: "Go into Burying-place, CHILDREN; you will there see Graves as short as yourselves. Yea, you may be at Play one Hour; Dead, Dead, the next" (qtd. inStannard, 1977:65). The humanitarian element exists in Dickinson's mortuary thinking when the grave is sentimentally thought of as a shelter or a hospice owing to the tender virtue of its loving kindness towards the fragile, delicate, and neglected (even "unnoticed by the Father" P#141). These dead are called "Lambs" for their Christ­like innocence and delicate nature. It is for this reason that they were isolated and discriminated against. They suffered the cruelties of life "for whom time had not a fold" (P#141). Now the tomb protects them from "Nature's Temper" (P#1172). In recognition- of this prudence the grave is called "thoughtful" (P#141). Nature and time buffet, turn out of doors, and wear down the wretched and destitute. The grave picks them up and tucks them into a warm, peaceful shelter from the hurries and scurries of time. While frightful morning bells drag the children out of their sleep and "nimble Gentlemen / Are forced to keep their rooms -" the tomb is the place without such hurry and jostling. Dickinson defines the grave in terms of insulation against worldly noises: "Not Father's bells - nor Factories, / Could scare us any more!" - "Where tired Children placid sleep / Thro' Centuries of noon" (P#112). This constitutes Dickinson's idea of bliss and heaven, which, she believes, begin from the grave. Hence the grave is designated a "Cradle mute" (P#25), implying that the dead are new-born babes asleep therein. But, despite all this tender treatment of, and terms of endearment for the grave, the creepy thought of "Bald Death" (P#457) and "That bareheaded life - under the grass" (L220), as she says of the life in the grave, never ceases to predominate in her writings.

Dickinson's thoughts on death are marked by intellectual refinement. They have no stink of the grave or of corporeal putrefaction. The point could be made clearer by contrasting her handling of the subject or theme with that of the medieval ars moriendi artists and writers, who, as Huizinga says, were possessed by the dance of the dead rather than that of death (1955:147). The rise of Victorian culture in nineteenth-century New England might well account for such a "deodorising" treatment of the mortuary subject. Ann Douglas's The Feminization of American Culture explores the nineteenth-century tendency of romanticising death, and this insight may well be applied to the purple aura surrounding Emily Dickinson's attitude to death." Her worries are more of an intellectual and spiritual nature. She has hardly any interest in corporeal disintegration in the grave that captivated the medieval imagination both clerical and lay. Dickinson's constant speculation on death had removed the physicalities of the grave making for abstraction, and the figure of the grave thereby assumed deeper metaphorical significance.

Notes

1 Emily Dickinson was born December 10, 1830. The period under consideration ranges from age ten to age twenty-five year of her life.

2 All quotations from Dickinson's poems are from Thomas H. Johnson's one-volume edition The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. Boston.Toronto: Little, Brown & Co., 1960, and the poem numbers will henceforth be indicated by P#.

3 The Letters of Emily Dickinson (3 vols.), edited by Thomas H. Johnson with Theodora Ward. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1965, has been used for quotations from letters, which are indicated by L in the text.

4 The eschatological individual is the one who focalises death and the hereafter as the telos of life.

5 This line recording Dickinson's express desire to be remembered after her death by a marble memorial is typical of the one last wish that a nineteenth-century Victorian American would nurture all his or her life (Douglas, 1978:242). Notably, Dickinson is not worried about her death; her concern is more to find herself a memorialist after her own death.

6 Ann Douglas argues in The Ferninization of American Culture that such visits to the graveyards in the nineteenth century were for sheer entertainment: there was no serious purpose in them:

Hamlet went to the graveyard in a mood of alienation from his kind, of philosophical despair; he resorted to the churchyard to confront some ultimate reality The mid-nineteenth century American went to the cemetery rather in the spirit in which his twentieth-century descendant goes to the movies: with the hopefulness attendant upon the prospect of borrowed emotions. (1978:252-3) But Dickinson's visit should be excepted from this generalisation, as it is apparently more than a light-hearted stroll, and since this graveyard holds her personal loss.

7 But Dickinson did not concentrate on the festering corpse in the manner of the medieval moriens.

8 One can very well see the similarity in the depiction of corpses in the process of festering and disintegration in medieval French charnel houses (Huizinga, 140-42), and the pictorial representations of death and dead bodies on New England gravestones in Allan I. Ludwig's Graven Images: New England Stone Carving and Its Symbols, 1650-1815 (1966).

9 Camille Paglia writes in Sexual Personae: Self and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson: "Dickinson thinks of death as enforced passivity, agonizing impediment of movement. She dwells on the moment a person becomes a thing, as in 'The last Night that She lived,' where the pronoun disappears in the last stanza: 'And We - We placed the Hair -/ And drew the Head erect' (1100). A human has passed into the object - world. Some death poems use no personal pronoun at all: "Twas warm - at first - like Us.' It, it, it, she says of the one (519). Mind, body, and gender have gelatinized. Dickinson's death is a great neuter state. A dead female is a frozen phallic shaft; a dead male is a felled tree of humiliating inertness. Death is a maker of sterile androgynes. A corpse is soldered with rivets because it is a manufactured object, an android. Dickinson's notorious preoccupation with death is thus a hermaphrodizing obsession, a Romantic motif in its Decadent late phase" (1991:647­648). For Paglia, the singular virtue of death consists in the removal of gender discrimination, which, in her opinion, is achieved at death in Dickinson's poetry.

10 Both Ann Douglas and David E. Stannard discuss this 19th-century American trend at great length in The Feminization of American Culture (1977) and The Puritan Way of Death: A Study in Religion, Culture, and Social Change (1977) respectively.

11 Dickinson may have had in mind a conscious distinction between "small" and "little."While the first implies cramped space, the second is a term of endearment for one's beloved home. It is in this second sense that she views the grave.

12 Thus death is designated in the Book of Job (18:14).

13 The landscaped cemetery of Mount Auburn pioneered the Rural Cemetery Movement in 1831, giving rise to a series of romantic and landscaped graveyards in America in the mid-nineteenth century. Under its influence, many graveyards across New England were converted into gardens of the dead, and the general attitude towards death was set to a sweet, sentimental key. As a result, a paean of praise to death rose from the votaries of the Movement, and buying choice burial plots in the cemetery and expensive casket-like coffins, and making elaborate gravestonework became the all­consuming passion of the Movement enthusiasts. Following the example of Mount Auburn, Philadelphia established Laurel Hill Cemetery in 1836, and New York City opened Greenwood in 1838. By 1842 New England had several rural cemeteries, including the one opened in Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1841. In 1842 there were also rural cemeteries in Salem, Worcester, Springfield, and Plymouth, Massachusetts, New Haven, Connecticut, and Nashua and Portsmouth, New Hamphshire.

14 The image of the corpse as a seed awaiting germination under proper conditions is developed in the Bible:

But some man will say, How are the dead raised up? and with what body do they come? Thou fool, that which thou sowest, is not quickened, except it die (1 Cor 15:35­36).

So also is the resurrection of the dead. It is sown in corruption, it is raised in incorruption: It is raised in dishonour, it is raised in glory: it is sown in weakness, it is raised in power: It is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. There is anatural body, and there is a spiritual body (1 Cor 15:42- 44).

These verses focus the transformation of the natural corrupt body through death into a spiritual entity ("body" is the biblical word for it). It implies that the bodily form will be retained at the resurrection.

15 Ann Douglas very impressively documents the Victorian form of secular culture that emerged as fiery evangelical Edwardseanism waned in her The Feminization of American Culture (New York: A Discuss Book/ Published by Avon Books, 1978). She takes a negative stance towards the writers of both orthodox and liberal backgrounds who contributed significantly to the groundswell of sentimental literature in nineteenth­century New England, as doctrinal structures of orthodoxies in general and Calvinism in particular began to erode (chs.1-4, appendices, and passim.). Vide also Stannard, 1977:167-196. Using the insights of Ann Douglas and Stannard, Barton Levi St. Armand's Emily Dickinson and Her Culture explores the impact of American Victorianism on Emily Dickinson and her immediate environment that romanticised the issues of death and the afterlife.

Works Cited

Bender, Thomas. "The 'Rural' Cemetery Movement: Urban Travail and the Appeal of Nature." The New England Quarterly 47.2-3 (1974): 196-211.

Cameron, S. Lyric Time: Dickinson and the Limits of Genre. Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins UP, 1979.

Douglas, Ann. The Feminization of American Culture. 1977; New York: A Discuss Book/ Published by Avon Books, 1978.

Huizinga, J. The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of the Forms of Life, Thought and Art in France and the Netherlands in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. 1924. Middlesex,Gt. Britain: Penguin Books, 1955.

McIntosh, Peggy & Ellen Louise Hart. "Emily Dickinson 1830-1886." The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Paul Lauter. Vol. 1. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998. 2854-2861.

Ottlinger, Claudia. The Death-Motif in the Poetry of Emily Dickinson and

Christiana Rossetti. Frankfurt Am Main: Peterlang, 1996.

Paglia, Camille. "Amherst's Madame de Sade: Emily Dickinson." Sexual Personae: Self and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson. New York: Vintage, 1991. 623-673.

Stannard, David E. The Puritan Way of Death : A Study in Religion, Culture, and Socia Change. Oxford, New York, Toronto & Melbourne: Oxford UP, 1977.

St. Armand, Barton Levi. Emily Dickinson and Her Culture: The Soul's Society. New York:Cambridge UP,1984.

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